![]() ![]() Amphetamine – systematic reviews and meta-analyses report that low-dose amphetamine improves cognitive functions (e.g., inhibitory control, episodic memory, working memory, and aspects of attention) in healthy people and in individuals with ADHD.Relatively high doses of stimulants cause cognitive deficits. In particular, the classes of stimulants that demonstrate cognition-enhancing effects in humans act as direct agonists or indirect agonists of dopamine receptor D 1, adrenoceptor A 2, or both receptors in the prefrontal cortex. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of clinical human research using low doses of certain central nervous system stimulants found that these drugs enhance cognition in healthy people. In the United States, dietary supplements may be marketed if the manufacturer can show that the supplement is generally recognized as safe, and if the manufacturer does not make any claims about using the supplement to treat or prevent any disease or condition supplements that contain drugs or advertise health claims are illegal under US law. Racetams, piracetam and other compounds that are structurally related to piracetam, have few serious adverse effects and low toxicity, but there is little evidence that they enhance cognition in people having no cognitive impairments. Long-term safety evidence is typically unavailable for many nootropic compounds. The main concern with pharmaceutical drugs and dietary supplements are adverse effects. More recently piracetam, noopept and meclofenoxate have been sold as dietary supplements. ![]() In 2016, the American Medical Association adopted a policy to discourage prescriptions of nootropics for healthy people, on the basis that the cognitive effects appear to be highly variable among individuals, are dose-dependent, and limited or modest at best. In 2008, the most commonly used class of drug was stimulants, such as caffeine. Over the years 2010 to 2019, the FDA warned numerous supplement manufacturers about the illegal status of their products as unapproved drugs with no proven safety or efficacy at the doses listed on the products, together with misleading marketing. In 2019, the FDA and FTC warned manufacturers and consumers about possible advertising fraud and marketing scams concerning nootropic supplements. In 2018 in the United States, some nootropic supplements were identified as having misleading ingredients and illegal marketing. The FDA and FTC stated that some nootropic products had not been approved as a drug effective for any medical purpose, were not proven to be safe, and were illegally marketed in the United States under violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Federal Trade Commission (FTC) warned manufacturers and consumers in 2019 about possible advertising fraud and marketing scams concerning nootropic supplement products. Manufacturers' marketing claims for dietary supplements are usually not formally tested and verified by independent entities. Nootropics are often advertised with unproven claims of effectiveness for improving cognition. ( May 2019) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. ![]()
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